[86] To guard against this, in 1538 he began to build a chain of expensive, state-of-the-art defences along Britain's southern and eastern coasts, from Kent to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the demolition of the monasteries. [34] Catherine is not known to have protested. 1540, Sept.- 1541, Dec.- Vol. Apart from permanent garrisons at Berwick, Calais, and Carlisle, England's standing army numbered only a few hundred men. He just withdrew. 1, pt. Although Clement agreed to the creation of such a court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio, to decide in Henry's favour. Similarly, following the passage of the Act of Succession 1533, all adults in the kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions (declaring Henry's marriage to Anne legitimate and his marriage to Catherine illegitimate) by oath;[203] those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life, and any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage to Anne was invalid subject to the death penalty. [32][33] Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses "only to a very limited extent",[33] whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs. [158] This provision failed when James VI of Scotland became King of England in 1603. Response to the reforms was mixed. It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of whom wrote home that "the wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such". When news of this accident reached the queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536. In May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. [13] Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians. He also converted the money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Produce an heir. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings, which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and the disturbances ended. [19], Henry VII died on 21 April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. Introduction and Appendix, 1524–1530.- Vol. 1543, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. [5] Of the young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three â€“ his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales, and sisters Margaret and Mary â€“ survived infancy. [5] Henry also returned to the public some of the money supposedly extorted by the two ministers. [90], These suppressions, as well as the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act of 1536, in turn contributed to more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a large uprising in northern England in October 1536. 1538, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. [47] These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired. 1533.- Vol. Henry VIII took the throne at age 17 and married Catherine of Aragon six weeks later. Many of the existing buildings which he improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, the Palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge. Kildare was appointed chief governor in 1524, resuming his dispute with Butler, which had before been in a lull. He augmented the royal treasury by seizing church lands, but his heavy spending and long periods of mismanagement damaged the economy.[191]. As time went on, however, Henry grew increasingly unpopular, and in the final years of his rule, both his physical and mental health severely declined. [227] Technologically, Henry invested in large cannon for his warships, an idea that had taken hold in other countries, to replace the smaller serpentines in use. [139] Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace. 1. 13, pt. [78] Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell, Thomas Audley and the Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself. Kildare, on the other hand, was summoned to London; after some hesitation, he departed for London in 1534, where he would face charges of treason. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops remained. Henry VIII, king of England (1509–47) who presided over the start of the English Renaissance and the English Reformation. The Dissolution of the Monasteries provided a means to replenish the treasury, and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £120,000 (£36 million) a year. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. A letter from George Taylor to Lady Lisle dated the 27 April 1534 says that "The Queen hath a goodly belly, praying our Lord to send us a prince". [95], On 8 January 1536, news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act of 1534, which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. 1545, Jan.-July.- Vol. After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge. Charles brought the Empire into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. [186] A difference emerged between the king's financial health and the country's, although Cromwell's fall undermined much of his bureaucracy, which required him to keep order among the many new bodies and prevent profligate spending that strained relations as well as finances. [170] Both the rise and fall of court nobles could be swift: although the often-quoted figure of 72,000 executions of thieves during the last two years of his reign is inflated,[171] Henry did undoubtedly execute at will, burning or beheading two of his wives, 20 peers, four leading public servants, six close attendants and friends, one cardinal (John Fisher) and numerous abbots. 2., pt. Henry VIII was born on June 28, 1491, with big shoes to fill. [66] This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, Catherine's nephew, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope. January, 1547. [91] Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske, together with parts of the northern nobility. [63] The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms. Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion. [42] Remarkably, Henry had also secured the promised title of "Most Christian King of France" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated. [159] He could also sightread music and sing well. 1538–1547 and undated. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily. [199] Historian A. F. Pollard has argued that even if Henry had not needed an annulment, he might have come to reject papal control over the governance of England purely for political reasons. As a consequence, the king was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. [122] The marriage was subsequently dissolved, and Anne received the title of "The King's Sister", two houses and a generous allowance. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign. [242] The Irish law of the tribes did not suit such an arrangement, because the chieftain did not have the required rights; this made progress tortuous, and the plan was abandoned in 1543, not to be replaced.[243]. [17] Cohabitation was not possible because Henry was too young. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. [119][120] Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated. The tomb he had planned (with components taken from the tomb intended for Cardinal Wolsey) was only partly constructed and was never completed. [123] Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for the failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne. [21] Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at the friar's church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509. In 1533 Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who bore him a daughter, the future Elizabeth I. Mary was demoted from her own household and forced to take up residence with her infant half-sister. Richard Sampson's Oratio (1534), for example, was an argument for absolute obedience to the monarchy and claimed that the English church had always been independent from Rome. [164] Henry finally retired from jousting in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. [59] Early signs of a fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour, being moved into new quarters,[102] and Anne's brother, George Boleyn, being refused the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Nicholas Carew. 2., pt. He become fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian. 2. Henry’s time came on 21 April 1509 when his father died of tuberculosis. After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held,[28] including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament. Although he would go on to become the most infamous monarch in English history, Henry was never actually supposed to be king. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. Henry established a new political theology of obedience to the crown that continued for the next decade. Henry VIII’s first wife, Catherine of Aragon, was first married to his brother Arthur. [181] Many saw him as the man they wanted to bring about their shared aims, including Thomas Audley. [51] Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict was inevitable. Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England was once again bankrupt. [15], Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his second son in marriage to Arthur's widow Catherine. His contribution to larger vessels, if any, is unknown, but it is believed that he influenced the design of rowbarges and similar galleys. At home, he oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, and he was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542. [17] A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for "affinity", which took account of the possibility of consummation. During the reign of Henry VIII, between 1509 and 1547, a­n estimated 57,000 [source: The Tudors] and 7­2,000 [source: Historic Royal Palac­es] English subjects lost their heads.It was a violent time in history, but Henry VIII may have been particularly bloodthirsty, executing tens of thousands during his 36-year reign. Born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich Palace in London, Henry was the second eldest son to Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Married six times, he left a minor heir and a gravely complicated succession problem. Henry had given her a magnificent funeral after which she was buried in a vault under… The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments was another important shift: reformers within the Church used the Commandments' emphasis on faith and the word of God, while conservatives emphasised the need for dedication to God and doing good. The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches. [108] The birth was difficult, and the queen died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor. A particular focus of modern historiography has been the extent to which the events of Henry's life (including his marriages, foreign policy and religious changes) were the result of his own initiative and, if they were, whether they were the result of opportunism or of a principled undertaking by Henry. Chapuys backs this up in a letter dated 27 July, where he refers to Anne's pregnancy. Only the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth, it was his elder brother, Arthur, who was first in line to the throne. The result was an extensive compendium, the Valor Ecclesiasticus. [22] Following the ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall. [245], Although the central tenets of Elton's thesis have since been questioned, it has consistently provided the starting point for much later work, including that of J. J. Scarisbrick, his student. The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000). [46] Nevertheless, the English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. [115] Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the king. [190] By comparison, Henry's reign was a near disaster financially. [25] Others (most notably Edmund de la Pole) went unreconciled; de la Pole was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against the king. [228] Henry was also responsible for the creation of a permanent navy, with the supporting anchorages and dockyards. Henry cultivated the image of a Renaissance man, and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess, epitomised by the Field of the Cloth of Gold. About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant. Both were duly executed in the summer of 1535. 1524–1526.- Vol. She was the eldest of three children. One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil. [97] For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way. Occupation: King of England Born: June 28, 1491 in Greenwich, England Died: January 28, 1547 in London, England Reign: 1509-1547 Best known for: Marrying six times and splitting the Church of England from the Catholic Church Biography: Early Life Prince Henry was born on June 28th in Greenwich Palace. [29] The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation. Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. 1540, Jan.-Aug.- Vol. [165][166][167], The power of Tudor monarchs, including Henry, was 'whole' and 'entire', ruling, as they claimed, by the grace of God alone. [189], Henry inherited a vast fortune and a prosperous economy from his father, who had been frugal. Richmond had never before visited Ireland, his appointment a break with past policy. [125][126] He was subsequently attainted and beheaded. Francis I likewise became king of France upon the death of Louis in 1515,[50] leaving three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate.

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